<MUSLIM
SPAIN
When Tarik b. Ziyad in 711 crossed the Straits of
Gibraltar, and overran the Visigothic Kingdom, there were
no communities of openly professing Jews in Spain. But
there remained in the country many secret Jews who
welcomed the Muslims as their savi ors from long
oppression and flocked to join them.
According to reliable Arabic sources the Muslim invaders
made it their custom to call together the Jews wherever
they found them and to hand towns which they had conquered
over to them to garrison. They mention that this happened
at Córdoba, Granada, Toledo, and Seville. Since the number
of Muslim soldiers was relatively small, there can be no
doubt that they appreciated the military help of the Jews
who enabled them to continue their campaigns without
having to leave behind them sizable divisions.
So the situation of the Crypto-Jews changed abruptly and
they occupied the enviable position of a group allied with
the new rulers of the peninsula. Probably their economic
situation changed too, since most of the Visigothic nobles
had fled and they could appropriate abandoned estates.
[Jews coming back from
Africa to Muslim Spain - bad development: taxes and
civil wars]
The immediate sequel of the conquest of Spain by the Arabs
was apparently that many Jews who had left Spain at the
time of the religious persecutions by the Visigothic kings
or their descendants returned from North Africa where they
had found shelter. But soon the Jews began to suffer from
the exactions of the new rulers who imposed on them (as on
the Christians) heavy taxes. Even the party strife and
civil wars which flared up among the Arabs brought down
many calamities upon them.
UMAYYAD RULE. [755-1030s]
[Tolerant Umayyad rule
and flourishing Jewish communities - Bishop Bodo
converts to Judaism - Jewish and Arab culture - "Jewish
cities"]
The *Umayyad kingdom in Spain was established by 'Abd
al-Rahman I in 755 with its capital at Córdoba in
Andalusia. There was relative economic prosperity
throughout Umayyad rule and Jews were represented in many
occupations, including medicine, agriculture, commerce,
and crafts. Jews continued to work in these fields after
the fall of the Umayyad regime. The tolerance of the
Umayyad regime rendered Muslim Spain a refuge for the Jews
and their numbers increased within the country. In 839 the
Frank Bishop *Bodo converted to Judaism in *Saragossa,
married a Spanish Jewess, and wrote a tract against
Christianity to which Alvaros of Córdoba replied.
Jewish scholarship and culture flourished alongside its
Arab counterpart and was influenced by it. The Babylonian
geonim
corresponded with rabbis and scholars in the centers of
*Lucena and *Barcelona. R. *Amram Gaon sent his prayer
book to Spanish scholars. The academy at Lucena flourished
into the 12th century and is mentioned in responsa as
early as the ninth. Later Arab geographers cited Lucena,
Granada, and *Tarragona as "Jewish cities".
[Main town Córdoba -
center for Arab and Jewish culture]
The real Jewish cultural revival began in the tenth
century under 'Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), who assumed
the title of caliph in 929 in Córdoba. At that time
Córdoba was a center of both Arab and Jewish culture. This
was the time of the political rise of the court physician
*Hisdai ibn Shaprut, who attained the position of chief of
customs and foreign trade. Hisdai was also a diplomat who
negotiated with Christian rulers on behalf of the
caliphate. In addition, he was a patron of the two leading
Hebrew philologists *Dunash b. Labrat and *Menahem b.
Saruk.
[Jewish literature -
Jewish statesman Hisdai - rabbis in Spain - philologist
Hayyuj]
The Jewish literati acquired a sense of aesthetics and an
appreciation of physical beauty from the artistic
accomplishment of the (col. 222)
Arabs in Spain. This sensitivity took root in the
mid-tenth century and found expression in the Hebrew
poetry of medieval Spain almost right up to the general
expulsion in 1492.
As head of Spanish Jewry, Hisdai appointed *Moses b.
Hanokh, who came from Italy, chief rabbi and head of a
yeshivah [[religious Torah school]] at Córdoba. Thus,
Spanish Jewry's reliance on the Babylonian geonim in halakhic
matters decreased. Hisdai is the first example of the
many-faceted Jewish statesman, communal leader, and
intellectual who was characteristic of the community in
Muslim Spain.
After his death the post of rabbi of the Córdoba community
was disputed by Joseph b. Isaac *ibn Abitur, supported by
the wealthy silk merchant *Ibn Jau, and R. *Hanokh b.
Moses. The latter emerged victorious and his appointment
was sanctioned by Caliph al-Hakam II, the patron of the
Jewish geographer *Ibrahim b. Ya'qub. During the reign of
al-*Mansur (d. 1002) the great Hebrew philologist *Hayyuj
(Abu Zakariyya Yahya b. Da'ud), who established the
principle of the trilateral root, led in Córdoba.
THE PETTY PRINCIPALITIES.
[since 1013: Southern
Spain under Berber rule - Jewish positions - Jewish
philosophers Samuel ha-Nagid and Joseph ha-Nagid -
Granada pogrom and massacre of 1066]
With the decline of Umayyad rule after al-Mansur's death,
the Berber conquest of Córdoba (1013), and the demise of
the dynasty in the 1030s, Córdoba lost its former
prominence and the capitals of the various Berber and Arab
principalities became cultural and commercial centers.
Jewish tax farmers, advisers, and physicians served at the
different courts. The relatively tolerant rulers welcomed
and esteemed Jewish financiers, advisers in matters
economic and political gifted writers, scholars, and
scientists.
The ethos of this Jewish upper class was distinguished by
several features: the desire for and attainment of
political power, the harmony of religion and secular
culture, the study of the Talmud along with poetry (col.
223)
and philosophy, equal proficiency in Arabic and Hebrew,
the epitome of the fulfillment of this ideal was the poet
and halakhist *Samuel ha-Nagid, a refugee from Córdoba who
served as vizier and commander of the army of Granada from
about 1030 to his death in 1056; he was also head of the
Jewish community. His remarkable career and military
exploits are recorded in both Hebrew and Arabic sources
including his own poetry.
Samuel was succeeded by his son *Joseph ha-Nagid, whose
pride and ambition aroused the enmity of certain Muslims
who assassinated him in 1066. Inspired by fanatics,
Muslims then attacked Granada Jewry and many survivors
moved to other towns, particularly Lucena. The Granada
massacre marked the first persecution of Jews in Muslim
Spain.
[Jews in Muslim Sevilla
under the Abbasids - Lucena - Saragossa and others -
Toledo Christian since 1085]
Prominent communities in the middle to late 11th century
also included Seville, then ruled by the Abbasid dynasty.
Jewish courtiers included Abraham b. Meir ibn *Muhajir, to
whom Moses *ibn Ezra dedicated his Sefer ha-Tarshish (Sefer
ha-Anka). Under al-Mu'tamid [[al-Mutamid]], Isaac
ibn *Albalia served as court astrologer and as chief rabbi
of Seville, and the scholar Joseph *ibn Migash was sent on
diplomatic missions.
Lucena remained an important center of learning. Its
academy was led by the great talmudist Isaac *Alfasi. His
successors were Isaac *ibn Ghayyat and Joseph ibn Migash.
During Samuel ha-Nagid's term of office, the Jew
*Jekuthiel, who was later murdered by political rivals,
served as vizier in Saragossa. A dynamic cultural center,
Saragossa was the home of the philologist and grammarian
*Ibn Janah, the controversial Bible commentator Moses
ha-Kohen ibn *Gikatilla, the important neoplatonic
philosopher and poet Solomon ibn *Gabirol, and the ethical
writer *Bahya ibn Pakuda. The latter's major work, Fara'id al-Qulub
(Heb. Hovot ha-Levavot,
"The Duties of the Hearts"), shows the influence of Muslim
ascetic ideals.
Other important communities were *Denia, a major port in
eastern Spain and the residence of the talmudist R. *Isaac
b. Reuben al-Bargeloni, *Tudela, *Almeria, and *Huesca.
Eleventh-century Toledo, capital of a Berber kingdom had a
Jewish population of 4,000 and a Karaite community as
well. It was taken by the Christians in 1085.
THE ALMORAVIDS.
[Muslim Victory at
Zallaka against Castilian armies - Jews at the Muslim
courts - poets at Seville]
The advance of the reconquest prompted al-Mu'tamid
[[al-Mutamid]] of Seville to request the aid of Yusuf ibn
Tashfin of North Africa, the leader of the fanatic
*Almoravid sect. In 1086 the latter led the Muslim armies
to victory at Zallaka against the Castilians commanded by
Alfonso VI. Yusuf attempted to force Lucena Jewry to
convert to Islam, but payment of a large sum of money
caused him to rescind his decree.
Under his son, Ali (1106-43), Abu Ayyub Sulayman ibn
Mu'allim served as court physician and Abu al-Hasan
Abraham b. Meir ibn Kamaniel was sent on diplomatic
missions. During Ali's reign the poets Abu Sulayman ibn
Muhajir and Abu al-Fath Eleazar ibn Azhar lived in
Seville. Córdoba continued to prosper and was a cultural
center and the residence of the gifted poet Joseph b.
Jacob *ibn Sahl (d. 1123) and the philosopher Joseph ibn
*Zaddik.
THE ALMOHADS.
[Berber Almohad dynasty
from Morocco in Spain: Jewish cultural institutions
closed - forced Islamization]
In 1146 the *Almohads, an even more fanatic Berber dynasty
of Morocco, led by 'Abd al-Mu'min, began their conquest of
Muslim Spain, which put an end to the flourishing Jewish
communities of Andalusia. The practice of the Jewish
religion was forbidden by the authorities. Synagogues and
yeshivot [[religious Torah schools]] were closed and Jews
were compelled to embrace Islam. Many emigrated to
Christian Spain; others outwardly professed Islam but
secretly observed Judaism, an ominous portent of the
Conversos in Christian Spain a century later.
R. *Abraham ibn Ezra composed a moving elegy on the demise
of the Andalusian communities. In 1162 these secret Jews
were (col. 225)
active in a revolt against the Almohads, particularly in
deposing them in Granada. Almohad rule in Spain lasted
longer than a century.
[Castilian conquests -
Jews in the Arab kingdom of Granada]
<In the mid-13th century the Castilians conquered
a great part of Andalusia. The Muslims retained only the
kingdom of Granada in southeastern Spain. This kingdom,
which was ruled by the Arab dynasty of Banu al-Ahmar and
existed for nearly 250 years, contained the important
communities of Granada, *Málaga, and Almeria. Although
there were periods when the rulers of Granada inclined
toward religious fanaticism, they employed Jewish
counselors and court physicians.
Jews from Christian Spain emigrated to Granada as their
situation deteriorated. The poet, historian, and talmudist
Saadiah b. Maimon *ibn Danan was rabbi of Granada in the
late 15th century. At that time Isaac *Hamon was court
physician and very influential in government circles.
When Granada surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella in
1492, the last Muslim king stipulated that Jews enjoy the
same rights as other subjects, i.e., judicial autonomy,
freedom to practice their religion, and permission to
emigrate. According to this treaty, Conversos who had come
from Christian Spain could leave within a month. The
Catholic monarchs, however, did not keep their word and
proclaimed the edict of the expulsion of the Jews in
Granada.
[E.A.]> (col. 226)
